Rand J. Spiro developed the Cognitive Flexibility Theory - no single perspective is adequate to the task of representing ill-structured problems and that a successful (i.e. cognitively flexible) learner is one who can readily cast and recast knowledge on response to varying situational demands. Too attain this flexibility, learners must understand problems in their full coplexity and must ‘criss-cross” the landscape (problem space) in multiple passes in order to observe how shifts in variables and goals alter the space.

Similar is the terminology of Geertz (1985) Thick to describe ill-structured problems. Spiro believes that underlying biases and assumptions taint the design of instructional systems leading to their failure. These biases and assumptions simplify instruction and promote the illusion that knowledge domains are well structured and that problems are similar from case to case.

Calling the over-simplified teaching models employed in most classes "A conspiracy of convenience", Spiro argues that objectives of learning vary from introductory instruction to more advanced instruction and that over-simplifying instructional approaches has a very negative impact on advanced learning. Oversimplification, he argues, is a "common thread running through the deficiencies of learning."

Spiro rejects the common view of constructivism, which relies too heavily on "the retrieval of organized packets of knowledge, or schemas, from memory" to augment the analysis of problems under consideration. Spiro's "new constructivism" is less rigid and "is doubly constructive(1)understandings are constructed by using prior knowledge to go beyond the information given; and (2) the prior knowledge that is brought to bear is itself constructed, rather than retrieved intact from memory, on a case-by-case basis (as required by the across-case variability of ill-structured domains)."

Sprio is a strong proponent of the use of hypertext being applied in learning models (when appropriate) to provide flexible instruction appropriate for developing cognitive flexibility and has written several articles on the subject.

Publications

Cognitive Flexibility, Constructivism, and Hypertext: Random Access Instruction for Advanced Knowledge Acquisition in Ill-Structured Domains, Rand J. Spiro, Paul J. Feltovich, Michael 1. Jacobson and Richard L. Coulson

Spiro, R.J., Coulson, R.L., Feltovich, P.J., & Anderson, D. (1988). Cognitive flexibility theory: Advanced knowledge acquisition in ill-structured domains. In V. Patel (ed.), Proceedings of the 10th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. [Reprinted in Ruddell, R.B. & Ruddell, M.R. (1994). Theoretical Models and Processes of Reading (4th Ed.). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.]

Spiro, R.J. & Jehng, J. (1990). Cognitive flexibility and hypertext: Theory and technology for the non-linear and multidimensional traversal of complex subject matter. D. Nix & R. Spiro (eds.), Cognition, Education, and Multimedia. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.